Tragedy in Tom Brennan Essay Example for Free

Disaster in Tom Brennan Essay Question: It is difficult to maintain a strategic distance from strife throughout everyday life, except this disaster was preventable. Do you concur? Do you accept that catastrophes just transpire? In the novel ‘The story of Tom Brennan’, by JC Burke, she features in the most extreme way that catastrophes do happen. My conclusion to the current issue is that disasters do occur. There will consistently be unavoidable clash andI concur with the main articulation in the section. On the off chance that you consider the occasions that occurred in the novel, you will comprehend that the story line is certainly not a cheerful one. As depicted by JC Burke, the novel blueprints anguish in numerous occurrences, misery in the method of Nicole and Luke’s families. In spite of the fact that these feelings are laid out there is still brilliant and cheerful feelings included. It is difficult to evade struggle; it is simply a question of the measure of disaster you get. The measure of contention you get can likewise think about a person’s character, how they react and handle in any case horrendous issues. In the event that you can remain solid through the extreme occasions throughout everyday life, you can conquer the snags that are tossed at you. There are numerous stages an individual experiences during times of catastrophe; it shifts between individuals, religions and races. A portion of the stages are misery, being so tragic you can’t discover any exit plan. Outrage is another, giving you miss the individual/s so much anger assumes control over your life. These are only a portion of the stages one experiences during catastrophe. Clearly the mishap in the novel is a disaster, anyway there was certainly carelessness engaged with the occasions that occurred the evening of the mishap. Daniel was inebriated and the travelers realized that so I question the judgment of them, never the less the obligation lies with the driver and for this situation it is Daniel. His activities prompting the demise of his companions Nicole and Luke were unsatisfactory, additionally his activities lead to the debilitation of his cousin Fyn. His cousin Fyn was one of his incredible companions, they did everything together, played for a similar rugby crew, preparing close by one another and just for the most part making some extraordinary memories. Presently however Fyn isn't able to do he ones had the option to do. He will no longer share his energy for rugby he once had, in spite of the fact that he would offer anything to play there is no other option for him.

Benefits of Implementation a Good Accounting System Essay - 3

Advantages of Implementation a Good Accounting System - Essay Example Bookkeeping framework requires three monetary bookkeeping reports; the accounting report, which decides budgetary situation of the business, salary proclamation, which appears if the business is making a benefit or misfortune lastly and income explanation which shows cash inflow and surge in the business. Business exercises are controlled by cash given to the administration body by the proprietors. Thusly, a fiscal summary is valuable in checking the viability of the executives. Fiscal summaries additionally go about as an apparatus utilized in making an appraisal. These announcements show how the executives spent assets dispensed to them during the time spent decreasing the company’s cost and expanding productivity (Kieso and Weygandt 34). It is crafted by the bookkeeping office to make such evaluations and give a report. Great bookkeeping framework causes a company’s partner to settle on monetarily educated choices. The choices made depend on the data got subsequent to investigating fiscal summaries. Business choices are constantly founded on bookkeeping data. The bookkeeping framework is additionally significant for record keeping. Data gathered from various sources is gotten, broke down and conveyed to the forthcoming clients for dynamic. In view of bookkeeping subtleties, organization records can be utilized to make money related approaches. Productive bookkeeping framework assists with recognizing misdirection by placing in legitimate inside control component to screen occasions (Kieso and Weygandt 47). Compelling and proficient following of interior occasions can be accomplished by having a decent bookkeeping data framework set up.

22 James Baldwin Quotes on Life, Literature, and Prejudice

22 James Baldwin Quotes on Life, Literature, and Prejudice “You think your pain and your heartbreak are unprecedented in the history of the world, but then you read,” James Baldwin said in 1963 in an interview for LIFE Magazine. There are so many perfect James Baldwin quotes about everything from writing to America that it was difficult to fit them into one post. The American novelist, social critic, and essayist wrote about race, homosexuality, writing, history, and more in his non-fictionâ€"his most famous works including essay collection Notes of a Native Son and long essay and letter to his nephew, The Fire Next Time. Baldwin fictionalized the lives of gay and bisexual African American men in his novels and plays such as Go Tell It On the Mountain and Giovanni’s Room, as well as exploring the urban life of Black Americans in Another Country.   Baldwin lived most of his life after the age of 24 in Paris, disillusioned by American racism and homophobia and hoping to write outside of what seemed like a limiting African-American context. He is one of America’s most important exile writers, and one of its most thoughtful critics.   ON MUSIC “All I know about music is that not many people ever really hear it. And even then, on the rare occasions when something opens within, and the music enters, what we mainly hear, or hear corroborated, are personal, private, vanishing evocations. But the man who creates the music is hearing something else, is dealing with the roar rising from the void and imposing order on it as it hits the air. What is evoked in him, then, is of another order, more terrible because it has no words, and triumphant, too, for that same reason. And his triumph, when he triumphs, is ours.” â€"from  Sonny’s Blues  (1957) ON LIFE “To be sensual, I think, is to respect and rejoice in the force of life, of life itself, and to be present in all that one does, from the effort of loving to the making of bread.”  â€"from  The Fire Next Time (1963) ON LOVE “Love does not begin and end the way we seem to think it does. Love is a battle, love is a war; love is a growing up.”  â€"from  Nobody Knows My Name: More Notes of a Native Son (1961) “Love takes off masks that we fear we cannot live without and know we cannot live within.”  â€"from  The Fire Next Time  (1963) “People cant, unhappily, invent their mooring posts, their lovers and their friends, anymore than they can invent their parents. Life gives these and also takes them away and the great difficulty is to say Yes to life.” â€"from  Giovanni’s Room  (1956) “Everybody’s journey is individual. If you fall in love with a boy, you fall in love with a boy. The fact that many Americans consider it a disease says more about them than it does about homosexuality.” â€"from  Conversations with James Baldwin  (1989) ON PREJUDICE “People who treat other people as less than human must not be surprised when the bread they have cast on the waters comes floating back to them, poisoned.” â€"from  No Name in the Street (1972) “I imagine one of the reasons people cling to their hates so stubbornly is because they sense, once hate is gone, they will be forced to deal with pain.” â€"from  Notes of a Native Son  (1955) “I know what the world has done to my brother and how narrowly he has survived it. And I know, which is much worse, and this is the crime of which I accuse my country and my countrymen, and for which neither I nor time nor history will ever forgive them, that they have destroyed and are destroying hundreds of thousands of lives and do not know it and do not want to know it. One can be, indeed one must strive to become, tough and philosophical concerning destruction and death, for this is what most of mankind has been best at since we have heard of man. (But remember: most of mankind is not all of mankind.) But it is not permissible that the authors of devastation should also be innocent. It is the innocence which constitutes the crime.” â€"from  The Fire Next Time  (1963) “There are so many ways of being despicable it quite makes one’s head spin. But the way to be really despicable is to be contemptuous of other people’s pain.” â€"from  Giovanni’s Room  (1956) ON AMERICA “Well, if one really wishes to know how justice is administered in a country, one does not question the policemen, the lawyers, the judges, or the protected members of the middle class. One goes to the unprotectedâ€"those, precisely, who need the laws protection most!â€"and listens to their testimony. Ask any Mexican, any Puerto Rican, any black man, any poor personâ€"ask the wretched how they fare in the halls of justice, and then you will know, not whether or not the country is just, but whether or not it has any love for justice, or any concept of it. It is certain, in any case, that ignorance, allied with power, is the most ferocious enemy justice can have.” â€"from  No Name in the Street (1972) “I love America more than any other country in the world, and, exactly for this reason, I insist on the right to criticize her perpetually. I think all theories are suspect, that the finest principles may have to be modified, or may even be pulverized by the demands of life, and that one must find, therefore, ones own moral center and move through the world hoping that this center will guide one aright.” â€"from  Notes of a Native Son  (1955) “What one does realize is that when you try to stand up and look the world in the face like you had a right to be here, without knowing that this is the result of it, you have attacked the entire power structure of the Western world.”  â€"from a 1969 talk in London ON HISTORY “To accept one’s pastâ€"one’s historyâ€"is not the same thing as drowning in it; it is learning how to use it. An invented past can never be used; it cracks and crumbles under the pressures of life like clay in a season of drought.” â€"from  The Fire Next Time (1963) “Precisely at the point when you begin to develop a conscience, you must find yourself at war with your society.” â€"from “A Talk for Teachers,” 1963 ON POVERTY “Anyone who has struggled with poverty knows how extremely expensive it is to be poor.” â€"from  Nobody Knows My Name: More Notes of a Native Son (1961) ON CHANGE “Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be changed until it is faced.”  â€"from  The Cross of Redemption: Uncollected Writings  (2010) ON RELIGION “If the concept of God has any validity or any use, it can only be to make us larger, freer, and more loving. If God cannot do this, then it is time we got rid of Him.”  â€"from  The Fire Next Time (1963) ON WRITING “I consider that I have many responsibilities, but none greater than this: to last, as Hemingway says, and get my work done.”  â€"from  Notes of a Native Son  (1955) “One writes out of one thing onlyâ€"ones own experience. Everything depends on how relentlessly one forces from this experience the last drop, sweet or bitter, it can possibly give. This is the only real concern of the artist, to recreate out of the disorder of life that order which is art.” â€"from  Notes of a Native Son  (1955) ON BOOKS “You read something which you thought only happened to you, and you discover that it happened 100 years ago to Dostoyevsky. This is a very great liberation for the suffering, struggling person, who always thinks that he is alone. This is why art is important. Art would not be important if life were not important, and life is important.”  â€"from “An interview with James Baldwin” (1961)

Plagiarism What Are Some Potential Punishments For...

Today, education is big business. With the explosion of the Internet, more and more people are pursuing advanced education. It has never been easier to get your Bachelors or Masters degree. The business of plagiarism has become big business also. In this paper I will discuss how Brenau University defines plagiarism, what are some potential punishments for intentionally and unintentionally plagiarizing as a student at Brenau University. I will also explain how students attitudes toward plagiarism can impact intellectual property within the general environment of US businesses. Finally, I will examine how as a manager, in my company, can these attitudes lead to damaging your company’s competitive advantage. Bergmann explains â€Å"plagiarism†¦show more content†¦In subsequent, cases the punishment will be more and more costly for the student convicted of this offense to include failure of the course, to expulsion from the school. In my opinion these steps are necessary to protect the academic integrity of the institution and validate the students degree from the institution. Students are able to purchase papers of any topic on the Internet, sometimes very inexpensively. If not caught, the student may think plagiarism is ok and continue to take ideas without, in the students opinion, any consequences. The universities are a training grounds and it is their duty to discourage and stop students from pursuing this route. If unchecked and the student, now a graduate, enters the business environment with these attitudes, it could become costly to the business which employs the person and the business itself. The stealing of ideas can be considered copyright infringement and subject the individual or organization to legal actions. Since plagiarism is stealing it could be prosecuted as a felony in some jurisdictions. That is the legal side of plagiarism, but their are other effects. The loss of respect among peers and possible termination as companies try to distance themselves away from this potentially public negative event. No company wants bad press, this ty pe of publicity is the type that companies shy away from. The negative effect on a career can be devastating as well, being identified as someone who s

Themes Of Social Mobility Through Marriage - 1655 Words

This paper critically analyses the theme of social mobility through marriage in Shakespeare’s play ‘Twelfth Night’. In addition, the paper highlights how different characters in the play got into higher social classes or desired to be in higher social classes through marriage. This paper holds that in a highly stratified society such as that presented in the Shakespeare’s play; marriage plays a significant role in in social class mobility. As opposed to some traditional society where marriage was only permitted along an individual’s class, Shakespeare presents a literally liberal society with marriage and other relationships permitted along all the classes within the society. In fact, marriage is more of a person choice, contrary to the perception in the tradition society. How Marriage leads to Social Mobility in the Play ‘Twelfth Night’ According to Chris, Shakespeare’s play ‘Twelfth Night’ touches on sensitive concepts within the society (1). Similar to the majority of his literary works, Twelfth Night captures the concept of love and how individuals use love through marriage to achieve power or a higher social status. Throughout the play, there is an apparent struggle for social status by the key characters. Lindheim asserts that there are some characters in the play, such as Antonio who would do everything within their means in order to achieve their sexual desires (2). For example, in a more traditional society or contemporary setting, Antonio could never hope ofShow MoreRelatedGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1347 Words   |  6 Pagessociety as much as socioeconomic status. An individuals social status not only supersedes their apparent values or intellect - characteristics that truly attest to the worth of an individual in the context of social membership - but also seemingly establis hes a societal dichotomy, one that divides the population into that of the rich and the poor. 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In Emma, the story establishes the idea that society could not function without marriage and how the institution of marriage defined one’s social status. Marriage, a broad theme in this book, can be broken down throughout. Emma’s sister has gone off after getting married and left her alone. 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Kalidasa can use Shakespeare’s play to reteach Mahabharata’s values, since the play presents themes of wealth, gender role, religious belief, respect, status, and fashion, which are very closely ideal with the Puranas’ concept and teachings. Along with the Puranas, Kalidasa’s name means the â€Å"servant of Kali† which can suggest he was a followerRead MoreThe Social Hierarchy Of Jane Eyre By Charlotte Bronte1262 Words   |  6 PagesIn Charlotte Bronte’s novel, Jane Eyre, Bronte seemingly condemns the existing social hierarchy. Not only are the characters who are most concerned with the allure of fortune and rank portrayed as either deceitful or unethical, but even characters who’ve accepted their means of poverty and demonstrate honest moral natures are mocked. 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The Griffith Park Observatory Free Essays

The Griffith Observatory is a spectacular place, filled with amazing exhibits! It’s understandable that some people are frustrated, but with a little patience and some good planning, you can have a wonderful visit! Here’s the 10 best tips for your trip: (1) GO ON A WEEKDAY. It’s very busy on Sat and Sun, shows sell out, and tons of people make it hard to get a good view of the exhibits. (2) BRING A LUNCH. We will write a custom essay sample on The Griffith Park Observatory or any similar topic only for you Order Now The cafe is okay, not great, and the prices are kind of silly ($2. 50 for a bag of chips). You can eat your own food at the cafe tables, but not outside on the lawn. No picnicking. (3) SEE THE PLANETARIUM SHOW. It is by far the coolest thing at the Observatory. It’s sort of like an imax film. Very moving! (4) ASK A GUIDE FOR INFO. As I described above, the guides can tell you what you’re looking at, and it will blow your mind! (5) COME AFTER SUNSET. You can look through the telescope on the roof and see the rings of Saturn, or the craters of the moon. Also, if the line on the roof is really long, you can see just as good of stuff by looking through the telescopes on the front lawn. (6) BE PATIENT.The Observatory was reopened about 6 months before it was really ready – they wanted to give people the chance to get in to see what’s there – but as a result there’s no brochures or organized tours yet. Remember, though, the Guides will answer your questions! (7) SEE THE FREE DOCUMENTARY. There’s a new theater in the lower levels (The Leonard Nimoy Event Horizon) that has a free documentary film about the Observatory. It’s 25 minutes long and it’s a great way to get some background information and have a break from walking around. (8) TAKE THE ZOO SHUTTLE. The Zoo shuttle is easy to find, easy to drive to, and free to park at.However, if you want to sightsee, don’t mind paying a few bucks for parking, then park at Hollywood ; Highland and see the Chinese Theatre as part of your tourist activities. (9) HIKING UP IS FREE. If you can find the path up to the Observatory through the park, you can go in for free. (10) USE WEBSITE TO MAKE RESERVATIONS. It is so easy. Just follow the links under â€Å"Visiting† to â€Å"Make a Reservation† and you can choose the shuttle you want, the date you want, and the time you want and then you can print your tickets out from home! Don’t bother with the reservation line, the wait is forever, and they have to email or fax the tickets anyway. How to cite The Griffith Park Observatory, Papers

Roman (5688 words) Essay Example For Students

Roman (5688 words) Essay RomanArchitectureAgreat deal of conjecture has been expended on the question as to the genesis ofthe Roman basilica. For present purposes it may be sufficient to observe thatthe addition of aisles to the nave was so manifest a convenience that it mightnot improbably have been thought of, even had models not been at hand in thecivic buildings of the Empire. The most suitable example that can be chosen astypical of the Roman basilica of the age of Constantine is the church of S. Maria Maggiore. And this, not merely because, in spite of certain modernalterations, it has kept in the main its original features, but also because itdeparts, to a lesser extent than any other extant example, from the classicalideal. The lateral colonnade is immediately surmounted by a horizontalentablature, with architrave, frieze, and cornice all complete. The monolithiccolumns, with their capitals, are, moreover, homogenous, and have been cut fortheir position, instead of being like those of so many early Christian churches,the more or less incongruous and heterogeneous spoils of older and non-Christianedifices. Of this church, in its original form, no one however decidedly histastes may incline to some more highly developed system or style of architecturewill call in question the stately and majestic beauty. The general effect isthat of a vast perspective of lines of noble columns, carrying the eye forwardto the altar, which, with its civory or canopy, forms so conspicuous an ob ject,standing, framed, as it mere, within the arch of the terminal apse, which formsits immediate and appropriate background. S. Maria Maggiore is considerablysmaller than were any of the other three chief basilicas of Rome (St Peters,St. Pauls, and the Lateran). Each of these, in addition to a nave of greaterlength and breadth, was furnished (as may still be seen in the restored StPauls) with a double aisle. This, however, was an advantage which was notunattended with a serious drawback from a purely esthetic point of view. For agreat space of blank wall intervening between the top of the lateral colonnadeand the clerestory windows was of necessity required in order to give support tothe penthouse roof of the double aisle. And it is curious, to say the least,that it should not have occurred to the builders of those three basilicas toutilize a portion of the space thus enclosed, and at the same time to lightenthe burden of the wall above the colonnade, by constructing a gallery abov e theinner aisle. It is true, of course, that such a gallery is found in the churchof S. Agnese, where the low-level of the floor relatively to the surface of theground outside may have suggested this method of construction; but whereas, inthe East, the provision of a gallery (used as a gynaeceum) was usual from veryearly times, it never became otherwise than exceptional in the West. Taking Eastand West together, we find among early and medieval basilican churches examplesof all the combinations that are possible in the arrangement of aisles andgalleries. They are the single aisle without gallery, which is, of course, thecommonest type of all; the double aisle without gallery, as in the three greatRoman basilicas; the single aisle with gallery, as in S. Agnese; the doubleaisle with single gallery, as in St. Demetrius at Thessalonica; and finally, asa crowning example, though of a later period, the double aisle surmounted by adouble gallery, as in the Duomo at Pisa. These, however, a re modifications inthe general design of the building. Others, not less important, though they areless obviously striking, concern the details of the construction. Of these thefirst was the substitution of the arch for the horizontal entablature, and thesecond that of the pillar of masonry for the monolithic column. The formerchange, which had already come into operation in the first basilica of St. Paulwithout the Walls, was so obviously in the nature of an improvement in point ofstability that it is no matter for surprise that it should have been almost. universally adopted. Colonnaded and arcaded basilicas, as we may call them, forthe most part older than the eleventh century, are to be found in the mostwidely distant regions, from Syria to Spain, and from Sicily to Saxony; and thelack of examples in Southern France is probably due to the destructive invasionof the Saracens and Northmen and to the building of new churches of a differenttype, in the eleventh and succeeding centuries, on the ruins of the old. Thechange from column to pillar, though in many cases it was no doubt necessitatedby lack of suitable materials for the supply of ready-made monoliths frompagan buildings was not inexhaustible proved, in fact, the germ of futuredevelopment; for from the plain square support to the recessed pillar, and fromthis again to the grouped shafts of the Gothic cathedrals of later times, theprogress can be quite plainly traced. Mention should here be made of a class ofbasilican churches, in which as in S. Miniato, outside Florence, and i n S. Zenone, Verona, pillars or grouped shafts alternate, at fixed intervals, withsimple columns, and serve the purpose of affording support to transverse archesspanning the whole width of the nave; a first step, it may be observed, tocontinuous vaulting. ROMANESQUE TYPES Something must now be said of the veryimportant alterations which the eastern end of the basilican church underwent inthe process of development from the Roman to what may conveniently be groupedtogether under the designation of Romanesque types. When, instudying the ground-plan of a Roman basilica, we pass from the nave and aislesto what lies beyond them, only two forms of design present themselves. In thegreat majority of instances the terminal apse opens immediately on the nave,with the necessary result, so far as internal arrangements are concerned, thatthe choir, as we should call it, was an enclosure, quite unconnected with thearchitecture of the building, protruding forwards into the body of the church,as may stil l be seen in the church of S. Clemente in Rome. In the four greaterbasilicas, however, as well as in a few other instances, a transept wasinterposed between the nave and the apse, affording adequate space for the choirin its central portion, while its arms (which did not project beyond the aisles)served the purpose implied in the terms senatorium and matroneum. Now it isnoteworthy that the transept of a Roman basilica is, architecturally speaking,simply an oblong hall, crossing the nave at its upper extremity, and formingwith it a T-shaped cross, or crux immissa, but having no organic structuralrelation with it. But it was only necessary to equalize the breadth of transeptand nave, so that their crossing became a perfect square, in order to give tothis crossing a definite structural character, by strengthening the pieces atthe four angles of the crossing, and making them the basis of a more or lessconspicuous tower. And this was one of the most characteristic innovation orimprovemen ts introduced by the Romanesque builders of Northern Europe. In fact,however, before this stage of development was reached, the older basilicandesign had undergone another modification. For the simple apse, openingimmediately to the transept, church builders of all parts of Europe had alreadyin the eighth century substituted a projecting chancel, forming a fourth limb ofthe cross, which now definitively assumed the form of the crux commissa, bycontrast with the crux immissa of the Roman basilica. The earliest example of aperfectly quadrate crossing, with a somewhat rudimentary tower, appears to havebeen the minster of Fulda, built about A. D. 800. It was quickly followed by St. Gall (830), Hersfeld (831), and Werden (875); but nearly two centuries were toelapse before the cruciform arrangement, even in the case of more importantchurches, can be said to have gained general acceptance (Dehio and v. Bezold,Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes, I, 161). The differences which havealready been mentioned were, however, by no means the only ones whichdistinguished the Romanesque from the Roman transept. The transept of aRomanesque church, especially of those which were attached to monasteries, wasusually provided with one or more apses, projecting from the east side of itsnorthern and southern arms; and from this it appears, plainly enough, that thepurpose, or at least a principal purpose, of the medieval transept, was to makeprovision for subsidiary altars and chapels. A pair of transept apses,projecting eastwards, already makes its appearance at Hersfeld and Werden. AtBernay, Boscherville (St- Georges), and Cerisy-la-Forà ªt(St-Vigor), each arm of the transep t has two eastern apses, correspondingrespectively to the aisle and to the projecting arm. The same arrangement isfound also at Tarragona. At La Charità ©,a priory dependent on Cluny, each arm had three apses, so that there were sevenin all, immediately contiguous to one another, and varying in depth from thecentral to the northern and southern members of the system. The plan of Clunyitself was that of a cross with two transverse beams. Of the western transepteach arm had two apses; of the eastern each had three, two projecting eastwardsand one terminal. Saint-Benoà ®t-sur-Loirehad likewise a double transept, furnished on the same principle with sixsubsidiary apses. Among English cathedrals it may here be mentioned bothCanterbury and Norwich have a single chapel projecting from each arm of theirrespective transepts; and at E1y the Galilee porch, which has theform of a western transept, opens eastwards into two apsidal chapels, contiguouson either side to the main walls of the ca thedral. Far more important in theirbearing on the later history of architecture than these developments of thetransept were certain changes which gradually took place in connection with thechancel. It is not unusual in Romanesque churches, to find the chancel flanked,like the nave, with aisles, terminating in apsidal or square-ended chapels. Butin more considerable edifices especially in France, the aisle is often carriedround as an ambulatory behind the chancel apse; and when this is the case, theambulatory most commonly opens into a series of radiating chapels. These are, inthe earliest examples, entirely separate from one another, being sometimes twoor four, but more usually three or five, in number. In later examples the numberof chapels increases to seven or even nine; and they are then contiguous,forming a complete corona or chevet. The first beginnings of this system go backto so early a date as the fifth century. De Rossi has argued, apparently on goodgrounds, that some ear ly Roman, Italian, and African basilicas were furnishedwith an ambulatory round the apse. This form of design, however, was soonabandoned in Italy, and in the Romanesque pre-Gothic period it cannot be said tohave been usual anywhere except in France, where it proved a seed rich with thepromise of future developments. The earliest instance of its adoption there wasalmost certainly the ancient church of St-Martin of Tours, as rebuilt by BishopPerpetuus in A. D. 470. This edifice, as Quicherat has shown, had a semicircularambulatory at the back of the altar, in which, a few years later, was placed thetomb of Perpetuus himself. From Tours the type seems to have passed to Clermont-Ferrand(Sts. Vitalis and Agricola), and thence, many centuries later, to Orlà ©ans(St-Aignan, 1029). Meanwhile, in 997, the church of St. Martin had been rebuilt,and in the foundations of this edifice, which can still be traced, we find whatis probably the earliest example of a chevet or corona of radiating ch apels. Itserved, in its turn, in the course of the following century, as the model, inthis respect, of Notre-Dame de la Couture at Le Mans (c. 1000), St-Remi at Reims(c. 1010), St-Savin at Saint Savin (1020-30), the cathedral at Vannes (c. 1030),St-Hilaire at Poitiers (1049), and the abbey church at Cluny, as rebuilt in1089. Shortly before 1100 the church of St. Martin was once more rebuilt, on ascale of greater splendour; and once more the new building became the model forother churches, chief among which were those of St-Sernin at Toulouse (1096), ofSantiago at Compostela (c. 1105), and of the cathedral at Chartres (1112). Double standard EssayThe final stage in the evolution of architecture of the pointed arch was not,however, reached, until, for the solid Romanesque buttresses, which rested onthe vaulting of the aisles, and which were not only clumsy but often provedinadequate for their purpose, the genius of the Gothic builders hit upon theepoch-making device of the flying buttress. By means of this device the thrustof the main vaulting was not, indeed, as has been too often said, met by acounter-thrust, but was transmitted to the solid buttresses, mostlyweighted with pinnacles, which were now built outwards to a great distance fromthe aisles, and the spaces between which were sometimes utilized, and might withadvantage have been more often utilized, for a range of lateral chapels. Thesubject of Gothic architecture in its details is, however, one that needsseparate treatment, and for present purposes this very inadequate indication ofsome of the general principles involved in its development must suffice. THECIRCULAR CHURCH AND ITS DERIVATIVES It was stated at the outset of the articlethat all ecclesiastical architecture may be said to have been devel- oped fromtwo primitive germs, the oblong and the circular chamber. Of those very numerouschurches, principally, but by no means exclusively, Eastern or Italian, whichmay be regarded as the products of the second line of development, we shallspeak very briefly. That a circular chamber without any kind of annex wasunsuitable for the ordinary purposes of public worship is plain enough. And themost obvious modification of this rudimentary form was to throw out a projectingsanctuary on one side of the building, as in St. Georges, Thessalonica, or inthe little church of S. Tommaso in Limine, near Bergamo. It was hardly lessobviously convenient to build a projecting porch or narthex on the oppositeside, as in St. Eliass, also at Thessalonica, and to complete the cross bymeans of lateral projection, as in the sepulchral chapel of Gall a Placidia atRavenna. Thus it was that churches having the form of a Greek cross, as well asother varieties of what German authors call the Centralbau, may be said to owetheir origin to a very simple process of evolution from the circular domedbuilding. Among the almost endless varieties on the main theme may be hereenumerated: buildings in which a circular, or polygonal, or quadrilateral aisle,whether in one or more stories, surrounds the central space, buildings in which,though the principal open space is cruciform, and the whole is dominated by acentral cupola, the ground- plan shows a rectangular outline, the cross being,as it were, boxed within a square; and buildings in which one of the arms of thecross is considerably elongated, as in the Duomo at Florence, St. Peters inRome, and St. Pauls in London. The last-named modification, it is to beobserved, has the effect of assimilating the ground-plan of those greatchurches, and of many lesser examples of the same character, to tha t of theRomanesque and Gothic cruciform buildings whose genealogical descent from thecolumned rectangular basilica is contestable. Among ecclesiastical edifices ofhistorical importance or interest which are either circular or polygonal, or inwhich the circular or polygonal centre predominates over subsidiary parts of thestructure, may be mentioned the Pantheon in Rome, St. Sergius at Constantinople,S. Vitale at Ravenna, S. Lorenzo at Milan, the great baptisteries of Florence,Siena, and Pisa, and the churches of the Knights Templars in various parts ofEurope. St. Luke at Stiris in Phocis, besides being an excellent typicalinstance of true Byzantine architecture, affords a good example of theboxing of a cruciform building of the Greek type, by enclosingwithin the walls the square space between the adjacent limbs of the cross. Practically, however, the full development of cruciform from circular buildingsbecame possible only when the problem had been solved of roofing a squarechamber with a circular dome. This has in some cases been done by first reducingthe square to an octagon, by means of squinches or trompettes,and then raising the dome on the octagon, by filling in the obtuse angles of thefigure with rudimentary pendentives or faced corbelling. But already in thesixth century the architect and builder of Santa Sophia had showed for all timethat it was possible by means of true pendentives, to support adome, even of immense size, on four arches (with their piers) forming a square. The use of pendentives being once understood, it became possible, not only tocombine the advantages of a great central dome with those of a cruciform church,but also to substitute domical for barrel- vaulting over the limbs of the cross,as at S. Marco, Venice, St-Front, Pà ©rigueux,and S. Antonio, Padua, or even to employ domical vaulting for a nave dividedinto square bays, as in the cathedral at Angouleme and other eleventh centurychurches in Perigord, in S. Salvatore at Venice, in the London Oratory, and(with the difference that saucer domes are here employed) in the WestminsterCathedral. Nor should it be forgotten that in the nave of St. Pauls, London,the architect had shown that domical vaulting is possible even when the bays ofnave or aisles are not square, but pronouncedly oblong. Indeed, if account betaken of the manifold disadvantages of barrel-vaulting as a means of roofing thenave of a large church, it may safely be said that the employment of some formof the dome or cupol a is as necessary to the logical and structural perfectionof the architecture of the round arch as ribbed groining and the use of flyingbuttresses are necessary to the logical and structural perfection of thearchitecture of the pointed arch. SYSTEMS AND STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE IN RELIGIONTO MODERN NEEDS A word must now be said, in conclusion, as to the merits of theseveral systems and styles of architecture, more especially in relation to theneeds of our own day. Of systems, indeed, there are in truth only three, thetrabeate or that of which the horizontal lintel may be regarded as thegenerating element, and which of necessity postulates a timber roof; that of theround arch, which by virtue of the law of economy postulates, as has been said,the use of domical rather than barrel-vaulting and that of the pointed arch,which, if carried to perfection postulates ribbed groining and the use of theflying buttress. The second system, however, admits of two methods of treatmentwhich are suffi ciently distinctive to be classed as two styles, viz. the neoclassical, or Renaissance, and the Byzantine, and which shall beparticularized presently. Now the trabeate system, or that of the timber roof,may be very briefly dismissed. In the great majority of cases we must, indeed,of necessity be content with such a covering, for our churches; but no one wouldchoose a wooden roof who could afford a vaulted building. Again, the varioustypes of Romanesque architecture, with their imperfect and tentative methods ofvaulting, though historically of great interest, should be regarded as finallyout of court. On the other hands of the Gothic architecture of the thirteenthcentury as exemplified in the great cathedrals of Northern France and ofCologne, it mas be quite fearlessly asserted: that every single principle ofconstruction employed therein was the outcome of centuries of practicalexperience, in the form of successive and progressive attempts to solve theproblems of church vaulting; that the great loftiness of these buildings was notprimari ly due (as has been sometimes suggested) to any mere Emporstreben, orupward-soaring propensity, but was simply the aggregate result ofgiving to the windows of the aisles and of the clerestory a height in suitableproportion to their width, and to the triforium a height sufficient to allow ofthe abutment of the aisle roof; and that every subsequent attempt to modify inany substantial particular, this perfected Gothic style, was of its natureretrogressive and decadent, as may be illustrated from the English perpendicularand the Italian and Spanish varieties of Gothic architecture. Nevertheless itmust be admitted that thirteenth-century Gothic, though perfect of its kind, hasits limitations, the most serious of which in relation to modern needs isthe necessarily restricted width of the nave. When the architect of the Milancathedral attempted to improve on his French predecessors by exceeding theirmaximum width of fifty feet, and to construct a Gothic building with a navemeasuring sixt y feet across it was found impossible, as the building proceeded,to carry out the original design without incurring the almost certain risk of acollapse, and hence it was necessary to depress the clerestory to its presentstunted proportions. Now under modern conditions of life, especially in the caseof a cathedral of first-class importance, a nave of far greater width is by allmeans desirable; and in order to secure this greater width it is necessaryeither to fall back on the unsatisfactory compromise of Italian or SpanishGothic, as illustrated in the cathedrals of Milan, Florence, or Gerona, or elseto adopt the principle of the round arch, combined, by preference, with domicalvaulting. This, as everyone knows, is what Mr. Bentley has done, with altogetherconspicuous success, in the case of the Westminster Cathedral. Of the design ofthis noble edifice it is impossible to speak here. But it may be worth while toindicate one main reason for the choice of the Byzantine rather than then eoclassic or Renaissance treatment of the round-arch system. The principaldifference between the two is this: that, whereas the neoclassical style, by itsuse of pilasters, treats every pier as though it were a cluster of huge,flat-faced columns; the Byzantine boldly distinguishes between piers andcolumns, and employs the latter exclusively for the purposes which monolithicshafts are suited to fulfil, for instance the support of a gallery while thepiers in a Byzantine building make no pretence of being other than what theyare, viz., the main supports of the vaulting. The Byzantine method ofconstruction was employed at Westminster has the further advantage that itbrings within the building the whole of the spaces between the buttressesthereby at the same time increasing the interior dimensions and avoiding theawkward appearance of ponderous external supports. Nor is the Byzantine style ofarchitecture suitable for a great cathedral alone; and one may venture to hopethat the great exper iment which has been tried at Westminster will be fruitfulof results in the future development of ecclesiastical architecture.